<chapter id="starting" xreflabel="Getting Started with AspectJ">

  <title>Getting Started with AspectJ</title>

  <sect1 id="starting-intro">
    <title>Introduction</title>

    <para>
      Many software developers are attracted to the idea of aspect-oriented
      programming (AOP) but unsure about how to begin using the
      technology. They recognize the concept of crosscutting concerns, and
      know that they have had problems with the implementation of such
      concerns in the past. But there are many questions about how to adopt
      AOP into the development process. Common questions include:

      <itemizedlist spacing="compact">
        <listitem>
          <para>Can I use aspects in my existing code?</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            What kinds of benefits can I expect to get from using aspects?
          </para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>How do I find aspects in my programs?</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>How steep is the learning curve for AOP?</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>What are the risks of using this new technology?</para>
        </listitem>

      </itemizedlist>
    </para>

    <para>
      This chapter addresses these questions in the context of AspectJ: a
      general-purpose aspect-oriented extension to Java. A series of
      abridged examples illustrate the kinds of aspects programmers may
      want to implement using AspectJ and the benefits associated with
      doing so.  Readers who would like to understand the examples in more
      detail, or who want to learn how to program examples like these, can
      find more complete examples and supporting material linked from the
      AspectJ web site ( <ulink url="http://eclipse.org/aspectj" /> ).
    </para>

    <para>
      A significant risk in adopting any new technology is going too far
      too fast. Concern about this risk causes many organizations to be
      conservative about adopting new technology. To address this issue,
      the examples in this chapter are grouped into three broad categories,
      with aspects that are easier to adopt into existing development
      projects coming earlier in this chapter. The next section, <xref
      linkend="starting-aspectj"/>, we present the core of AspectJ's
      features, and in <xref linkend="starting-development"/>, we present
      aspects that facilitate tasks such as debugging, testing and
      performance tuning of applications. And, in the section following,
      <xref linkend="starting-production"/>, we present aspects that
      implement crosscutting functionality common in Java applications. We
      will defer discussing a third category of aspects, reusable aspects,
      until <xref linkend="language"/>.
    </para>

    <para>
      These categories are informal, and this ordering is not the only way
      to adopt AspectJ. Some developers may want to use a production aspect
      right away. But our experience with current AspectJ users suggests
      that this is one ordering that allows developers to get experience
      with (and benefit from) AOP technology quickly, while also minimizing
      risk.
    </para>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="starting-aspectj" xreflabel="Introduction to AspectJ">
    <title>Introduction to AspectJ</title>

    <para>
      This section presents a brief introduction to the features of AspectJ
      used later in this chapter. These features are at the core of the
      language, but this is by no means a complete overview of AspectJ.
    </para>

    <para>
      The features are presented using a simple figure editor system. A
      <classname>Figure</classname> consists of a number of
      <classname>FigureElements</classname>, which can be either
      <classname>Point</classname>s or <classname>Line</classname>s. The
      <classname>Figure</classname> class provides factory services. There
      is also a <classname>Display</classname>. Most example programs later
      in this chapter are based on this system as well.
    </para>

    <para>
      <mediaobject>
        <imageobject>
          <imagedata fileref="figureUML.gif"/>
        </imageobject>
        <caption>
          <para>
            UML for the <literal>FigureEditor</literal> example
          </para>
        </caption>
      </mediaobject>
    </para>

    <para>
      The motivation for AspectJ (and likewise for aspect-oriented
      programming) is the realization that there are issues or concerns
      that are not well captured by traditional programming
      methodologies. Consider the problem of enforcing a security policy in
      some application. By its nature, security cuts across many of the
      natural units of modularity of the application. Moreover, the
      security policy must be uniformly applied to any additions as the
      application evolves. And the security policy that is being applied
      might itself evolve. Capturing concerns like a security policy in a
      disciplined way is difficult and error-prone in a traditional
      programming language.
    </para>

    <para>
      Concerns like security cut across the natural units of
      modularity. For object-oriented programming languages, the natural
      unit of modularity is the class. But in object-oriented programming
      languages, crosscutting concerns are not easily turned into classes
      precisely because they cut across classes, and so these aren't
      reusable, they can't be refined or inherited, they are spread through
      out the program in an undisciplined way, in short, they are difficult
      to work with.
    </para>

    <para>
      Aspect-oriented programming is a way of modularizing crosscutting
      concerns much like object-oriented programming is a way of
      modularizing common concerns. AspectJ is an implementation of
      aspect-oriented programming for Java.
    </para>

    <para>
      AspectJ adds to Java just one new concept, a join point -- and that's
      really just a name for an existing Java concept.  It adds to Java
      only a few new constructs: pointcuts, advice, inter-type declarations
      and aspects.  Pointcuts and advice dynamically affect program flow,
      inter-type declarations statically affects a program's class
      hierarchy, and aspects encapsulate these new constructs.
    </para>

    <para>
      A <emphasis>join point</emphasis> is a well-defined point in the
      program flow.  A <emphasis>pointcut</emphasis> picks out certain join
      points and values at those points.  A piece of
      <emphasis>advice</emphasis> is code that is executed when a join
      point is reached. These are the dynamic parts of AspectJ.
    </para>

    <para>
      AspectJ also has different kinds of <emphasis>inter-type
      declarations</emphasis> that allow the programmer to modify a
      program's static structure, namely, the members of its classes and
      the relationship between classes.
    </para>

    <para>
      AspectJ's <emphasis>aspect</emphasis> are the unit of modularity for
      crosscutting concerns.  They behave somewhat like Java classes, but
      may also include pointcuts, advice and inter-type declarations.
    </para>

    <para>
      In the sections immediately following, we are first going to look at
      join points and how they compose into pointcuts. Then we will look at
      advice, the code which is run when a pointcut is reached. We will see
      how to combine pointcuts and advice into aspects, AspectJ's reusable,
      inheritable unit of modularity. Lastly, we will look at how to use
      inter-type declarations to deal with crosscutting concerns of a
      program's class structure.
    </para>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="the-dynamic-join-point-model" xreflabel="the-dynamic-join-point-model">
      <title>The Dynamic Join Point Model</title>

      <para>
        A critical element in the design of any aspect-oriented language is
        the join point model. The join point model provides the common
        frame of reference that makes it possible to define the dynamic
        structure of crosscutting concerns.  This chapter describes
        AspectJ's dynamic join points, in which join points are certain
        well-defined points in the execution of the program.
      </para>

      <para>
        AspectJ provides for many kinds of join points, but this chapter
        discusses only one of them: method call join points. A method call
        join point encompasses the actions of an object receiving a method
        call. It includes all the actions that comprise a method call,
        starting after all arguments are evaluated up to and including
        return (either normally or by throwing an exception).
      </para>

      <para>
        Each method call at runtime is a different join point, even if it
        comes from the same call expression in the program.  Many other
        join points may run while a method call join point is executing --
        all the join points that happen while executing the method body,
        and in those methods called from the body.  We say that these join
        points execute in the <emphasis>dynamic context</emphasis> of the
        original call join point.
      </para>
    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="pointcuts" xreflabel="pointcuts">
      <title>Pointcuts</title>

      <para>
        In AspectJ, <emphasis>pointcuts</emphasis> pick out certain join
        points in the program flow. For example, the pointcut
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
call(void Point.setX(int))
</programlisting>

      <para>
        picks out each join point that is a call to a method that has the
        signature <literal>void Point.setX(int)</literal> &mdash; that is,
        <classname>Point</classname>'s void <function>setX</function>
        method with a single <literal>int</literal> parameter.
      </para>

      <para>
        A pointcut can be built out of other pointcuts with and, or, and
        not (spelled <literal>&amp;&amp;</literal>, <literal>||</literal>,
        and <literal>!</literal>).  For example:
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
call(void Point.setX(int)) ||
call(void Point.setY(int))
</programlisting>

      <para>
        picks out each join point that is either a call to
        <function>setX</function> or a call to <function>setY</function>.
      </para>

      <para>
        Pointcuts can identify join points from many different types
        &mdash; in other words, they can crosscut types.  For example,
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
call(void FigureElement.setXY(int,int)) ||
call(void Point.setX(int))              ||
call(void Point.setY(int))              ||
call(void Line.setP1(Point))            ||
call(void Line.setP2(Point));
</programlisting>

      <para>
        picks out each join point that is a call to one of five methods
        (the first of which is an interface method, by the way).
      </para>

      <para>
        In our example system, this pointcut captures all the join points
        when a <classname>FigureElement</classname> moves.  While this is a
        useful way to specify this crosscutting concern, it is a bit of a
        mouthful.  So AspectJ allows programmers to define their own named
        pointcuts with the <literal>pointcut</literal> form.  So the
        following declares a new, named pointcut:
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
pointcut move():
    call(void FigureElement.setXY(int,int)) ||
    call(void Point.setX(int))              ||
    call(void Point.setY(int))              ||
    call(void Line.setP1(Point))            ||
    call(void Line.setP2(Point));
</programlisting>

      <para>
        and whenever this definition is visible, the programmer can simply
        use <literal>move()</literal> to capture this complicated
        pointcut.
      </para>

      <para>
        The previous pointcuts are all based on explicit enumeration of a
        set of method signatures. We sometimes call this
        <emphasis>name-based</emphasis> crosscutting. AspectJ also
        provides mechanisms that enable specifying a pointcut in terms of
        properties of methods other than their exact name. We call this
        <emphasis>property-based</emphasis> crosscutting. The simplest of
        these involve using wildcards in certain fields of the method
        signature. For example, the pointcut
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
call(void Figure.make*(..))
</programlisting>

      <para>
        picks out each join point that's a call to a void method defined
        on <classname>Figure</classname> whose the name begins with
        "<literal>make</literal>" regardless of the method's parameters.
        In our system, this picks out calls to the factory methods
        <function>makePoint</function> and <function>makeLine</function>.
        The pointcut
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
call(public * Figure.* (..))
</programlisting>

      <para>
        picks out each call to <classname>Figure</classname>'s public
        methods.
      </para>

      <para>
        But wildcards aren't the only properties AspectJ supports.
        Another pointcut, <function>cflow</function>, identifies join
        points based on whether they occur in the dynamic context of
        other join points.  So
      </para>

<programlisting format="linespecific">
cflow(move())
</programlisting>

      <para>
        picks out each join point that occurs in the dynamic context of
        the join points picked out by <literal>move()</literal>, our named
        pointcut defined above.  So this picks out each join points that
        occurrs between when a move method is called and when it returns
        (either normally or by throwing an exception).
      </para>

    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="advice" xreflabel="advice">
      <title>Advice</title>

      <para>
        So pointcuts pick out join points.  But they don't
        <emphasis>do</emphasis> anything apart from picking out join
        points.  To actually implement crosscutting behavior, we use
        advice.  Advice brings together a pointcut (to pick out join
        points) and a body of code (to run at each of those join points).
      </para>

      <para>
        AspectJ has several different kinds of advice. <emphasis>Before
        advice</emphasis> runs as a join point is reached, before the
        program proceeds with the join point.  For example, before advice
        on a method call join point runs before the actual method starts
        running, just after the arguments to the method call are evaluated.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
before(): move() {
    System.out.println("about to move");
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        <emphasis>After advice</emphasis> on a particular join point runs
        after the program proceeds with that join point.  For example,
        after advice on a method call join point runs after the method body
        has run, just before before control is returned to the caller.
        Because Java programs can leave a join point 'normally' or by
        throwing an exception, there are three kinds of after advice:
        <literal>after returning</literal>, <literal>after
        throwing</literal>, and plain <literal>after</literal> (which runs
        after returning <emphasis>or</emphasis> throwing, like Java's
        <literal>finally</literal>).
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
after() returning: move() {
    System.out.println("just successfully moved");
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        <emphasis>Around advice</emphasis> on a join point runs as the join
        point is reached, and has explicit control over whether the program
        proceeds with the join point.  Around advice is not discussed in
        this section.
      </para>

      <sect3>
        <title>Exposing Context in Pointcuts</title>

        <para>
          Pointcuts not only pick out join points, they can also expose
          part of the execution context at their join points. Values
          exposed by a pointcut can be used in the body of advice
          declarations.
        </para>

        <para>
          An advice declaration has a parameter list (like a method) that
          gives names to all the pieces of context that it uses.  For
          example, the after advice
        </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
after(FigureElement fe, int x, int y) returning:
        ...SomePointcut... {
    ...SomeBody...
}
]]></programlisting>

         <para>
           uses three pieces of exposed context, a
           <literal>FigureElement</literal> named fe, and two
           <literal>int</literal>s named x and y.
         </para>

        <para>
          The body of the advice uses the names just like method
          parameters, so
        </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
after(FigureElement fe, int x, int y) returning:
        ...SomePointcut... {
    System.out.println(fe + " moved to (" + x + ", " + y + ")");
}
]]></programlisting>

        <para>
          The advice's pointcut publishes the values for the advice's
          arguments.  The three primitive pointcuts
          <literal>this</literal>, <literal>target</literal> and
          <literal>args</literal> are used to publish these values.  So now
          we can write the complete piece of advice:
        </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
after(FigureElement fe, int x, int y) returning:
        call(void FigureElement.setXY(int, int))
        && target(fe)
        && args(x, y) {
    System.out.println(fe + " moved to (" + x + ", " + y + ")");
}
]]></programlisting>

        <para>
          The pointcut exposes three values from calls to
          <function>setXY</function>: the target
          <classname>FigureElement</classname> -- which it publishes as
          <literal>fe</literal>, so it becomes the first argument to the
          after advice -- and the two int arguments -- which it publishes
          as <literal>x</literal> and <literal>y</literal>, so they become
          the second and third argument to the after advice.
        </para>

        <para>
          So the advice prints the figure element
          that was moved and its new <literal>x</literal> and
          <literal>y</literal> coordinates after each
          <classname>setXY</classname> method call.
        </para>

        <para>
          A named pointcut may have parameters like a piece of advice.
          When the named pointcut is used (by advice, or in another named
          pointcut), it publishes its context by name just like the
          <literal>this</literal>, <literal>target</literal> and
          <literal>args</literal> pointcut.  So another way to write the
          above advice is
        </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
pointcut setXY(FigureElement fe, int x, int y):
    call(void FigureElement.setXY(int, int))
    && target(fe)
    && args(x, y);

after(FigureElement fe, int x, int y) returning: setXY(fe, x, y) {
    System.out.println(fe + " moved to (" + x + ", " + y + ").");
}
]]></programlisting>

      </sect3>
    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="inter-type-declarations" xreflabel="inter-type-declarations">
      <title>Inter-type declarations</title>

      <para>
        Inter-type declarations in AspectJ are declarations that cut across
        classes and their hierarchies.  They may declare members that cut
        across multiple classes, or change the inheritance relationship
        between classes.  Unlike advice, which operates primarily
        dynamically, introduction operates statically, at compile-time.
      </para>

      <para>
        Consider the problem of expressing a capability shared by some
        existing classes that are already part of a class hierarchy,
        i.e. they already extend a class.  In Java, one creates an
        interface that captures this new capability, and then adds to
        <emphasis>each affected class</emphasis> a method that implements
        this interface.
      </para>

      <para>
        AspectJ can express the concern in one place, by using inter-type
        declarations.  The aspect declares the methods and fields that are
        necessary to implement the new capability, and associates the
        methods and fields to the existing classes.
      </para>

      <para>
        Suppose we want to have <classname>Screen</classname> objects
        observe changes to <classname>Point</classname> objects, where
        <classname>Point</classname> is an existing class. We can implement
        this by writing an aspect declaring that the class Point
        <classname>Point</classname> has an instance field,
        <varname>observers</varname>, that keeps track of the
        <classname>Screen</classname> objects that are observing
        <classname>Point</classname>s.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect PointObserving {
    private Vector Point.observers = new Vector();
    ...
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        The <literal>observers</literal> field is private, so only
        <classname>PointObserving</classname> can see it.  So observers are
        added or removed with the static methods
        <function>addObserver</function> and
        <function>removeObserver</function> on the aspect.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect PointObserving {
    private Vector Point.observers = new Vector();

    public static void addObserver(Point p, Screen s) {
        p.observers.add(s);
    }
    public static void removeObserver(Point p, Screen s) {
        p.observers.remove(s);
    }
    ...
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        Along with this, we can define a pointcut
        <function>changes</function> that defines what we want to observe,
        and the after advice defines what we want to do when we observe a
        change.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect PointObserving {
    private Vector Point.observers = new Vector();

    public static void addObserver(Point p, Screen s) {
        p.observers.add(s);
    }
    public static void removeObserver(Point p, Screen s) {
        p.observers.remove(s);
    }

    pointcut changes(Point p): target(p) && call(void Point.set*(int));

    after(Point p): changes(p) {
        Iterator iter = p.observers.iterator();
        while ( iter.hasNext() ) {
            updateObserver(p, (Screen)iter.next());
        }
    }

    static void updateObserver(Point p, Screen s) {
        s.display(p);
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        Note that neither <classname>Screen</classname>'s nor
        <classname>Point</classname>'s code has to be modified, and that
        all the changes needed to support this new capability are local to
        this aspect.
      </para>

    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="aspects" xreflabel="aspects">
      <title>Aspects</title>

      <para>
        Aspects wrap up pointcuts, advice, and inter-type declarations in a
        a modular unit of crosscutting implementation.  It is defined very
        much like a class, and can have methods, fields, and initializers
        in addition to the crosscutting members.  Because only aspects may
        include these crosscutting members, the declaration of these
        effects is localized.
      </para>

      <para>
        Like classes, aspects may be instantiated, but AspectJ controls how
        that instantiation happens -- so you can't use Java's
        <literal>new</literal> form to build new aspect instances.  By
        default, each aspect is a singleton, so one aspect instance is
        created.  This means that advice may use non-static fields of the
        aspect, if it needs to keep state around:
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect Logging {
    OutputStream logStream = System.err;

    before(): move() {
        logStream.println("about to move");
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        Aspects may also have more complicated rules for instantiation, but
        these will be described in a later chapter.
      </para>

    </sect2>
  </sect1>

<!-- ============================== -->

  <sect1 id="starting-development" xreflabel="Development Aspects">
    <title>Development Aspects</title>

    <para>
      The next two sections present the use of aspects in increasingly
      sophisticated ways. Development aspects are easily removed from
      production builds. Production aspects are intended to be used in
      both development and in production, but tend to affect only a few
      classes.
    </para>

    <para>
      This section presents examples of aspects that can be used during
      development of Java applications. These aspects facilitate debugging,
      testing and performance tuning work. The aspects define behavior that
      ranges from simple tracing, to profiling, to testing of internal
      consistency within the application. Using AspectJ makes it possible
      to cleanly modularize this kind of functionality, thereby making it
      possible to easily enable and disable the functionality when desired.
    </para>

    <sect2 id="tracing" xreflabel="tracing">
      <title>Tracing</title>

      <para>
        This first example shows how to increase the visibility of the
        internal workings of a program. It is a simple tracing aspect that
        prints a message at specified method calls. In our figure editor
        example, one such aspect might simply trace whenever points are
        drawn.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect SimpleTracing {
    pointcut tracedCall():
        call(void FigureElement.draw(GraphicsContext));

    before(): tracedCall() {
        System.out.println("Entering: " + thisJoinPoint);
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        This code makes use of the <literal>thisJoinPoint</literal> special
        variable. Within all advice bodies this variable is bound to an
        object that describes the current join point. The effect of this
        code is to print a line like the following every time a figure
        element receives a <function>draw</function> method call:
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
Entering: call(void FigureElement.draw(GraphicsContext))
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        To understand the benefit of coding this with AspectJ consider
        changing the set of method calls that are traced. With AspectJ,
        this just requires editing the definition of the
        <function>tracedCalls</function> pointcut and recompiling. The
        individual methods that are traced do not need to be edited.
      </para>

      <para>
        When debugging, programmers often invest considerable effort in
        figuring out a good set of trace points to use when looking for a
        particular kind of problem. When debugging is complete or appears
        to be complete it is frustrating to have to lose that investment by
        deleting trace statements from the code. The alternative of just
        commenting them out makes the code look bad, and can cause trace
        statements for one kind of debugging to get confused with trace
        statements for another kind of debugging.
      </para>

      <para>
        With AspectJ it is easy to both preserve the work of designing a
        good set of trace points and disable the tracing when it isn t
        being used. This is done by writing an aspect specifically for that
        tracing mode, and removing that aspect from the compilation when it
        is not needed.
      </para>

      <para>
        This ability to concisely implement and reuse debugging
        configurations that have proven useful in the past is a direct
        result of AspectJ modularizing a crosscutting design element the
        set of methods that are appropriate to trace when looking for a
        given kind of information.
      </para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 id="profiling-and-logging" xreflabel="profiling-and-logging">
      <title>Profiling and Logging</title>

      <para>
        Our second example shows you how to do some very specific
        profiling. Although many sophisticated profiling tools are
        available, and these can gather a variety of information and
        display the results in useful ways, you may sometimes want to
        profile or log some very specific behavior. In these cases, it is
        often possible to write a simple aspect similar to the ones above
        to do the job.
      </para>

      <para>
        For example, the following aspect counts the number of calls to the
        <function>rotate</function> method on a <classname>Line</classname>
        and the number of calls to the <function>set*</function> methods of
        a <classname>Point</classname> that happen within the control flow
        of those calls to <function>rotate</function>:
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect SetsInRotateCounting {
    int rotateCount = 0;
    int setCount = 0;

    before(): call(void Line.rotate(double)) {
        rotateCount++;
    }

    before(): call(void Point.set*(int))
              && cflow(call(void Line.rotate(double))) {
        setCount++;
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        In effect, this aspect allows the programmer to ask very specific
        questions like

        <blockquote>
          How many times is the <function>rotate</function>
          method defined on <classname>Line</classname> objects called?
        </blockquote>

        and

        <blockquote>
          How many times are methods defined on
          <classname>Point</classname> objects whose name begins with
          "<function>set</function>" called in fulfilling those rotate
          calls?
        </blockquote>

        questions it may be difficult to express using standard
        profiling or logging tools.
      </para>

    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="pre-and-post-conditions" xreflabel="pre-and-post-conditions">
      <title>Pre- and Post-Conditions</title>

      <para>
        Many programmers use the "Design by Contract" style popularized by
        Bertand Meyer in <citetitle>Object-Oriented Software Construction,
        2/e</citetitle>. In this style of programming, explicit
        pre-conditions test that callers of a method call it properly and
        explicit post-conditions test that methods properly do the work
        they are supposed to.
      </para>

      <para>
        AspectJ makes it possible to implement pre- and post-condition
        testing in modular form. For example, this code
      </para>


<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect PointBoundsChecking {

    pointcut setX(int x):
        (call(void FigureElement.setXY(int, int)) && args(x, *))
        || (call(void Point.setX(int)) && args(x));

    pointcut setY(int y):
        (call(void FigureElement.setXY(int, int)) && args(*, y))
        || (call(void Point.setY(int)) && args(y));

    before(int x): setX(x) {
        if ( x < MIN_X || x > MAX_X )
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("x is out of bounds.");
    }

    before(int y): setY(y) {
        if ( y < MIN_Y || y > MAX_Y )
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("y is out of bounds.");
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        implements the bounds checking aspect of pre-condition testing for
        operations that move points. Notice that the
        <function>setX</function> pointcut refers to all the operations
        that can set a Point's <literal>x</literal> coordinate; this
        includes the <function>setX</function> method, as well as half of
        the <function>setXY</function> method. In this sense the
        <function>setX</function> pointcut can be seen as involving very
        fine-grained crosscutting &mdash; it names the the
        <function>setX</function> method and half of the
        <function>setXY</function> method.
      </para>

      <para>
        Even though pre- and post-condition testing aspects can often be
        used only during testing, in some cases developers may wish to
        include them in the production build as well. Again, because
        AspectJ makes it possible to modularize these crosscutting concerns
        cleanly, it gives developers good control over this decision.
      </para>

    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="contract-enforcement" xreflabel="contract-enforcement">
      <title>Contract Enforcement</title>

      <para>
        The property-based crosscutting mechanisms can be very useful in
        defining more sophisticated contract enforcement. One very powerful
        use of these mechanisms is to identify method calls that, in a
        correct program, should not exist. For example, the following
        aspect enforces the constraint that only the well-known factory
        methods can add an element to the registry of figure
        elements. Enforcing this constraint ensures that no figure element
        is added to the registry more than once.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect RegistrationProtection {

    pointcut register(): call(void Registry.register(FigureElement));

    pointcut canRegister(): withincode(static * FigureElement.make*(..));

    before(): register() && !canRegister() {
        throw new IllegalAccessException("Illegal call " + thisJoinPoint);
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        This aspect uses the withincode primitive pointcut to denote all
        join points that occur within the body of the factory methods on
        <classname>FigureElement</classname> (the methods with names that
        begin with "<literal>make</literal>"). This is a property-based
        pointcut because it identifies join points based not on their
        signature, but rather on the property that they occur specifically
        within the code of another method. The before advice declaration
        effectively says signal an error for any calls to register that are
        not within the factory methods.
      </para>

      <para>
        This advice throws a runtime exception at certain join points, but
        AspectJ can do better.  Using the <literal>declare error</literal>
        form, we can have the <emphasis>compiler</emphasis> signal the
        error.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect RegistrationProtection {

    pointcut register(): call(void Registry.register(FigureElement));
    pointcut canRegister(): withincode(static * FigureElement.make*(..));

    declare error: register() && !canRegister(): "Illegal call"
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        When using this aspect, it is impossible for the compiler to
        compile programs with these illegal calls.  This early detection is
        not always possible.  In this case, since we depend only on static
        information (the <literal>withincode</literal> pointcut picks out
        join points totally based on their code, and the
        <literal>call</literal> pointcut here picks out join points
        statically).  Other enforcement, such as the precondition
        enforcement, above, does require dynamic information such as the
        runtime value of parameters.
      </para>
    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="configuration-management" xreflabel="configuration-management">
      <title>Configuration Management</title>

      <para>
        Configuration management for aspects can be handled using a variety
        of make-file like techniques. To work with optional aspects, the
        programmer can simply define their make files to either include the
        aspect in the call to the AspectJ compiler or not, as desired.
      </para>

      <para>
        Developers who want to be certain that no aspects are included in
        the production build can do so by configuring their make files so
        that they use a traditional Java compiler for production builds. To
        make it easy to write such make files, the AspectJ compiler has a
        command-line interface that is consistent with ordinary Java
        compilers.
      </para>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>

<!-- ============================== -->

  <sect1 id="starting-production" xreflabel="Production Aspects">
    <title>Production Aspects</title>

      <para>
        This section presents examples of aspects that are inherently
        intended to be included in the production builds of an application.
        Production aspects tend to add functionality to an application
        rather than merely adding more visibility of the internals of a
        program. Again, we begin with name-based aspects and follow with
        property-based aspects.  Name-based production aspects tend to
        affect only a small number of methods. For this reason, they are a
        good next step for projects adopting AspectJ. But even though they
        tend to be small and simple, they can often have a significant
        effect in terms of making the program easier to understand and
        maintain.
      </para>

    <sect2 id="change-monitoring" xreflabel="change-monitoring">
      <title>Change Monitoring</title>

      <para>
        The first example production aspect shows how one might implement
        some simple functionality where it is problematic to try and do it
        explicitly. It supports the code that refreshes the display. The
        role of the aspect is to maintain a dirty bit indicating whether or
        not an object has moved since the last time the display was
        refreshed.
      </para>

      <para>
        Implementing this functionality as an aspect is straightforward.
        The <function>testAndClear</function> method is called by the
        display code to find out whether a figure element has moved
        recently. This method returns the current state of the dirty flag
        and resets it to false. The pointcut <function>move</function>
        captures all the method calls that can move a figure element. The
        after advice on <function>move</function> sets the dirty flag
        whenever an object moves.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect MoveTracking {
    private static boolean dirty = false;

    public static boolean testAndClear() {
        boolean result = dirty;
        dirty = false;
        return result;
    }

    pointcut move():
        call(void FigureElement.setXY(int, int)) ||
        call(void Line.setP1(Point))             ||
        call(void Line.setP2(Point))             ||
        call(void Point.setX(int))               ||
        call(void Point.setY(int));

    after() returning: move() {
        dirty = true;
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        Even this simple example serves to illustrate some of the important
        benefits of using AspectJ in production code. Consider implementing
        this functionality with ordinary Java: there would likely be a
        helper class that contained the <literal>dirty</literal> flag, the
        <function>testAndClear</function> method, as well as a
        <function>setFlag</function> method. Each of the methods that could
        move a figure element would include a call to the
        <function>setFlag</function> method. Those calls, or rather the
        concept that those calls should happen at each move operation, are
        the crosscutting concern in this case.
      </para>

      <para>
        The AspectJ implementation has several advantages over the standard
        implementation:
      </para>

      <para>
        <emphasis>The structure of the crosscutting concern is captured
        explicitly.</emphasis> The moves pointcut clearly states all the
        methods involved, so the programmer reading the code sees not just
        individual calls to <literal>setFlag</literal>, but instead sees
        the real structure of the code. The IDE support included with
        AspectJ automatically reminds the programmer that this aspect
        advises each of the methods involved.  The IDE support also
        provides commands to jump to the advice from the method and
        vice-versa.
      </para>

      <para>
        <emphasis>Evolution is easier.</emphasis> If, for example, the
        aspect needs to be revised to record not just that some figure
        element moved, but rather to record exactly which figure elements
        moved, the change would be entirely local to the aspect. The
        pointcut would be updated to expose the object being moved, and the
        advice would be updated to record that object. The paper
        <citetitle>An Overview of AspectJ</citetitle> (available linked off
        of the AspectJ web site -- <ulink
        url="http://eclipse.org/aspectj" />), presented at ECOOP
        2001, presents a detailed discussion of various ways this aspect
        could be expected to evolve.
      </para>

      <para>
        <emphasis>The functionality is easy to plug in and out.</emphasis>
        Just as with development aspects, production aspects may need to be
        removed from the system, either because the functionality is no
        longer needed at all, or because it is not needed in certain
        configurations of a system. Because the functionality is
        modularized in a single aspect this is easy to do.
      </para>

      <para>
        <emphasis>The implementation is more stable.</emphasis> If, for
        example, the programmer adds a subclass of
        <classname>Line</classname> that overrides the existing methods,
        this advice in this aspect will still apply. In the ordinary Java
        implementation the programmer would have to remember to add the
        call to <function>setFlag</function> in the new overriding
        method. This benefit is often even more compelling for
        property-based aspects (see the section <xref
        linkend="starting-production-consistentBehavior"/>).
      </para>
    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="context-passing" xreflabel="context-passing">
      <title>Context Passing</title>

      <para>
        The crosscutting structure of context passing can be a significant
        source of complexity in Java programs. Consider implementing
        functionality that would allow a client of the figure editor (a
        program client rather than a human) to set the color of any figure
        elements that are created. Typically this requires passing a color,
        or a color factory, from the client, down through the calls that
        lead to the figure element factory. All programmers are familiar
        with the inconvenience of adding a first argument to a number of
        methods just to pass this kind of context information.
      </para>

      <para>
        Using AspectJ, this kind of context passing can be implemented in a
        modular way. The following code adds after advice that runs only
        when the factory methods of <classname>Figure</classname> are
        called in the control flow of a method on a
        <classname>ColorControllingClient</classname>.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect ColorControl {
    pointcut CCClientCflow(ColorControllingClient client):
        cflow(call(* * (..)) && target(client));

    pointcut make(): call(FigureElement Figure.make*(..));

    after (ColorControllingClient c) returning (FigureElement fe):
            make() && CCClientCflow(c) {
        fe.setColor(c.colorFor(fe));
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        This aspect affects only a small number of methods, but note that
        the non-AOP implementation of this functionality might require
        editing many more methods, specifically, all the methods in the
        control flow from the client to the factory. This is a benefit
        common to many property-based aspects while the aspect is short and
        affects only a modest number of benefits, the complexity the aspect
        saves is potentially much larger.
      </para>

    </sect2>

<!-- ============================== -->

    <sect2 id="starting-production-consistentBehavior" xreflabel="Providing Consistent Behavior">
      <title>Providing Consistent Behavior</title>

      <para>
        This example shows how a property-based aspect can be used to
        provide consistent handling of functionality across a large set of
        operations. This aspect ensures that all public methods of the
        <literal>com.bigboxco</literal> package log any Errors they throw
        to their caller (in Java, an Error is like an Exception, but it
        indicates that something really bad and usually unrecoverable has
        happened).  The <function>publicMethodCall</function> pointcut
        captures the public method calls of the package, and the after
        advice runs whenever one of those calls throws an Error. The advice
        logs that Error and then the throw resumes.
      </para>

      <programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect PublicErrorLogging {
    Log log = new Log();

    pointcut publicMethodCall():
        call(public * com.bigboxco.*.*(..));

    after() throwing (Error e): publicMethodCall() {
        log.write(e);
    }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        In some cases this aspect can log an exception twice. This happens
        if code inside the <literal>com.bigboxco</literal> package itself
        calls a public method of the package. In that case this code will
        log the error at both the outermost call into the
        <literal>com.bigboxco</literal> package and the re-entrant
        call. The <function>cflow</function> primitive pointcut can be used
        in a nice way to exclude these re-entrant calls:</para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
after() throwing (Error e):
        publicMethodCall() && !cflow(publicMethodCall()) {
    log.write(e);
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        The following aspect is taken from work on the AspectJ compiler.
        The aspect advises about 35 methods in the
        <classname>JavaParser</classname> class. The individual methods
        handle each of the different kinds of elements that must be
        parsed. They have names like <function>parseMethodDec</function>,
        <function>parseThrows</function>, and
        <function>parseExpr</function>.
      </para>

<programlisting><![CDATA[
aspect ContextFilling {
    pointcut parse(JavaParser jp):
        call(* JavaParser.parse*(..))
        && target(jp)
        && !call(Stmt parseVarDec(boolean)); // var decs
                                              // are tricky

    around(JavaParser jp) returns ASTObject: parse(jp) {
        Token beginToken = jp.peekToken();
        ASTObject ret = proceed(jp);
        if (ret != null) jp.addContext(ret, beginToken);
        return ret;
     }
}
]]></programlisting>

      <para>
        This example exhibits a property found in many aspects with large
        property-based pointcuts. In addition to a general property based
        pattern <literal>call(* JavaParser.parse*(..))</literal> it
        includes an exception to the pattern <literal>!call(Stmt
        parseVarDec(boolean))</literal>. The exclusion of
        <function>parseVarDec</function> happens because the parsing of
        variable declarations in Java is too complex to fit with the clean
        pattern of the other <function>parse*</function> methods. Even with
        the explicit exclusion this aspect is a clear expression of a clean
        crosscutting modularity. Namely that all
        <function>parse*</function> methods that return
        <classname>ASTObjects</classname>, except for
        <function>parseVarDec</function> share a common behavior for
        establishing the parse context of their result.
      </para>

      <para>
        The process of writing an aspect with a large property-based
        pointcut, and of developing the appropriate exceptions can clarify
        the structure of the system. This is especially true, as in this
        case, when refactoring existing code to use aspects. When we first
        looked at the code for this aspect, we were able to use the IDE
        support provided in AJDE for JBuilder to see what methods the
        aspect was advising compared to our manual coding. We quickly
        discovered that there were a dozen places where the aspect advice
        was in effect but we had not manually inserted the required
        functionality. Two of these were bugs in our prior non-AOP
        implementation of the parser. The other ten were needless
        performance optimizations. So, here, refactoring the code to
        express the crosscutting structure of the aspect explicitly made
        the code more concise and eliminated latent bugs.
      </para>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>

<!-- ============================== -->

  <sect1 id="starting-conclusion">
    <title>Conclusion</title>

    <para>
      AspectJ is a simple and practical aspect-oriented extension to
      Java. With just a few new constructs, AspectJ provides support for
      modular implementation of a range of crosscutting concerns.
    </para>

    <para>
      Adoption of AspectJ into an existing Java development project can be
      a straightforward and incremental task. One path is to begin by using
      only development aspects, going on to using production aspects and
      then reusable aspects after building up experience with
      AspectJ. Adoption can follow other paths as well. For example, some
      developers will benefit from using production aspects right
      away. Others may be able to write clean reusable aspects almost right
      away.
    </para>

    <para>
      AspectJ enables both name-based and property based crosscutting.
      Aspects that use name-based crosscutting tend to affect a small
      number of other classes. But despite their small scale, they can
      often eliminate significant complexity compared to an ordinary Java
      implementation.  Aspects that use property-based crosscutting can
      have small or large scale.
    </para>

    <para>
      Using AspectJ results in clean well-modularized implementations of
      crosscutting concerns. When written as an AspectJ aspect the
      structure of a crosscutting concern is explicit and easy to
      understand. Aspects are also highly modular, making it possible to
      develop plug-and-play implementations of crosscutting
      functionality.
    </para>

    <para>
      AspectJ provides more functionality than was covered by this short
      introduction. The next chapter, <xref linkend="language"/>,
      covers in detail more of the features of the AspectJ language. The
      following chapter, <xref linkend="examples"/>, then presents some
      carefully chosen examples that show you how AspectJ might be used. We
      recommend that you read the next two chapters carefully before
      deciding to adopt AspectJ into a project.
    </para>
  </sect1>
</chapter>

